Overpopulation Essays (1281 words) - Demography, Population

Overpopulation "The battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970's the world will undergo famines-hundreds of millions of people are going to starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a substantial increase in the world death rate, although many lives could be saved through dramatic programs to "stretch?the carrying capacity of the earth by increasing food production. But these programs will only provide a stay of execution unless they are accompanied by determined and successful efforts at population control.? These words, from Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich's book The Population Bomb, predicted a grim future for the world of 1968 when the book was published. Today, the debate rages on about how much life our planet can hold. With world population estimates currently around 5.5 billion, and a projected population of over 10 billion by 2100, the question of resource scarcity is raised. Will there be enough resources to support the exploding population of our planet? Also, is it true that population growth is necessary for economic prosperity, or is it responsible for problems such as hunger and poverty? One of the first things that need to be considered in the population debate is the issue of "carrying capacity.? Many different people define carrying capacity in many different ways, and in this lies a major problem. Basic ecology textbooks define carrying capacity as the number of individuals in a population that the resources of a particular habitat can support. Others define it as the point at which the birth rate is equal to the death rate, while still others define is as the average size of a population that is neither increasing or decreasing. Each different definition of carrying capacity has different arguments for the earth being above or below its carrying capacity, or of having infinite carrying capacity. Also, many other factors must be considered when estimating the earth's capacity by any of the above definitions. For instance, one must consider the level of prosperity of the people, the technology available, and the distribution of available wealth. Under certain conditions, the world might not easily hold even 1 billion people, while under other conditions a number as high as 20 billion is possible. Another factor in overpopulation that must be considered is that of life expectancy. According to United Nations estimates, the life expectancy in developed nations in the 1950's was approximately 66.0 years, while third world nations enjoyed a life expectancy of 40.7 years. Due to substantial declines in infant mortality, the average life expectancy in developed nations was 74.0 years and 64.7 years in developing countries. However, although the majority of this increase is due to decreases in infant mortality, jumps with this large of an increase cannot be entirely explained by that alone. New developments in medicine and technology have increased life spans across the board. Even more promising, and perhaps alarming, is the fact that predicted "upper limits?of human life expectancy have regularly been surpassed, and increases in life expectancy even appear to be accelerating. These average life expectancy increases, if they continue, will allow the world population to skyrocket at an even faster rate. Finally, and perhaps the most important issue that must be discussed in the debate on overpopulation is the issue of resource scarcity. So called "experts?love to enter the debate and make doomsday predictions that the world will run out of food, or oil, much like Dr. Paul Ehrlich did in his book, The Population Bomb. However, these predictions never seem to come true. Julian Simon, an economist, has an idea about natural resources which has sparked mountains of debate from both camps in the overpopulation discussion. Simon asserts that all natural resources are infinite. While this claim may seem audacious at first, it becomes clearer exactly what he means when studied. His point is definitely not that there are an infinite number of gold or copper atoms in the earth. The mass of the earth is finite, and current scientific studies imply that even the mass of the universe is finite. Simon is saying that resources are indefinite in the sense that we will never run out of them for whatever we decide to use them for. This contradicts the environmentalist wackos who claim the more of a resource is removed from the earth, the scarcer that resource becomes. For example, copper has been used for thousands of years for a variety of uses. The amount of copper taken from mines has increased over the last few thousand

Free Essays on Medieval

The Renaissance was the age of creativity, experimentation, and discovery. A new age was beginning but every new beginning comes from some other beginning’s end. This new age started right after the Dark Ages. The goal of the Renaissance period was to revive the lost wisdom, art, and culture. The humanists not only wanted to bring these aspects of life back, but also to start reconstructing their present culture along classical lines. The Renaissance period took place from 1265 AD to 1633 AD. The Middle Ages were coming to a close and a new age was beginning. Italy was at the center of intense creativity we now call the Renaissance, meaning â€Å"rebirth†. The Italian humanists were inspired by the classical works of Greece and Rome. The Italian humanists revived this type of culture and took it in as a new way of looking at the world. The rediscovery of their classical past helped to give Europeans a new sense of history as well as of their own capabilities. Many thinkers were now turning away and becoming less occupied with saving souls and avoiding temptation. The thinkers of this time dedicated themselves to exploring people’s individuality and educating them in their duties to society. This became the movement known as Humanism. At the same time, artists celebrated the beauty of the human body, in more lifelike paintings and sculptures, architecture, and discovering new ways to accomplish tasks. Many great accomplishments came out of the Renaissance period. Some prime examples are the Sistine Chapel, the plays of William Shakespeare, and the uniting of two kingdoms to form Spain. The Renaissance Era was the beginning of creativity, experimentation, and discovery after the Dark Ages.... Free Essays on Medieval Free Essays on Medieval The Renaissance was the age of creativity, experimentation, and discovery. A new age was beginning but every new beginning comes from some other beginning’s end. This new age started right after the Dark Ages. The goal of the Renaissance period was to revive the lost wisdom, art, and culture. The humanists not only wanted to bring these aspects of life back, but also to start reconstructing their present culture along classical lines. The Renaissance period took place from 1265 AD to 1633 AD. The Middle Ages were coming to a close and a new age was beginning. Italy was at the center of intense creativity we now call the Renaissance, meaning â€Å"rebirth†. The Italian humanists were inspired by the classical works of Greece and Rome. The Italian humanists revived this type of culture and took it in as a new way of looking at the world. The rediscovery of their classical past helped to give Europeans a new sense of history as well as of their own capabilities. Many thinkers were now turning away and becoming less occupied with saving souls and avoiding temptation. The thinkers of this time dedicated themselves to exploring people’s individuality and educating them in their duties to society. This became the movement known as Humanism. At the same time, artists celebrated the beauty of the human body, in more lifelike paintings and sculptures, architecture, and discovering new ways to accomplish tasks. Many great accomplishments came out of the Renaissance period. Some prime examples are the Sistine Chapel, the plays of William Shakespeare, and the uniting of two kingdoms to form Spain. The Renaissance Era was the beginning of creativity, experimentation, and discovery after the Dark Ages....

How to Study for a Law School Exam

How to Study for a Law School Exam In most instances, your grade in a course will depend entirely on one law school exam. If that sounds like a lot of pressure, well, quite frankly, it is, but theres good news! Some people in your class have to get As, so you might as well be one of them. The following five steps will help you ace any law school exam: Difficulty: Hard Time Required: Three months Heres How: Study all semester long.Be a diligent student throughout the semester by doing all the assigned reading, taking great notes, reviewing them after each week, and participating in class discussions. Law professors love to talk about seeing the forest for the trees; at this point you should focus on those trees, the main concepts your professor is covering. You can place them in the forest later.Join a study group.A great way to be sure youre understanding key concepts throughout the semester is to go over the readings and lectures with other law students. Through study groups, you can prepare for future classes by discussing assignments and fill in gaps in your notes from past lectures. It may take you a little while to find fellow students you click with, but its worth the effort. Not only will you be more prepared for the exam, youll also get used to talking out loud about cases and conceptsparticularly great if your professor uses the Socratic Method.Outline.Leading up to the readin g period, you should have a good grasp of major concepts, so now its time to pull them all together into the forest, if you will, in course outlines. Organize your outline based on the syllabus or your casebooks table of contents and fill in blanks with information from your notes. If you dont want to leave this until just before the exam, do it gradually throughout the semester; start a document with the major concepts, leaving large blank areas that you can fill in with information as you review it from your notes at the end of each week. Use past exams of professors to prepare.Many professors put past exams (sometimes with model answers) on file in the library; if your professor does so, be sure to take advantage. Past exams tell you what your professor considers the most important concepts in the course, and if a sample answer is included, be sure to study the format and copy it as best you can when you attempt other practice questions. If your professor offers review sessions or office hours, be sure to come prepared with a good understanding of past exams, which are also great for study group discussion.Improve your test-taking skills by learning from your past exams.If youve already been through a semester or more of law school exams, one of the best ways to improve your performance is by studying your past performances. If you can get copies of your exams, look at your answers and the model answers carefully. Note where you lost points, where you did the best, and also think back to how and when you preparedwhat worked and what may have been a waste of your time. Also be sure to analyze your exam-taking techniques as well, for example, did you use your time wisely during the test? What You Need: CasebookNotesOutlineTime

The Enlightenment Era Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Enlightenment Era - Essay Example This era condemned going with old, traditional ways of thinking only so that rational and carefully thought-of theories are formulated that are in time with the current events, of 18th century thereof. (E. Cassirer et al., 2007). Philosophy is a complete organism or system that is concerned with the human character and the world that exists. What this interaction basically is and how the human mind or the person itself interacts with the world he lives in. Philosophy is a question. It provokes mankind to answer questions and theories, and subjects a human to how life is lived and how is he living it, or how he is treating other people etc. This philosophy does not have some physical form, rather mostly through the expression in words. (Thomas, 2005) Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy. This is related to things like what reality is and what existence is defined as. And how do both of these function together. The enlightenment Era gave birth to this idea. Sometimes, this era is also known as the "age of criticism" and rightly said so because all formerly beliefs were questioned so that science and logic could follow through. Kant studied metaphysics closely and his knowledge of the functioning of society was based on metaphysics. He said that society has to retreat from what effect objects bring to the mind. He said that the new philosophy should be how the mind affects everything around it and those same objects. (Hunt, 2004). As far as the eighteenth century philosophers are concerned, they did some great work to bring this era to light. Some of these include Kant in Germany, the Encyclopedists in France, David Hume (1711-76) in Scotland and d'Holbach (1723-89). These philosophers became famous for their own different ideologies and concepts related to philosophy. There are many other popular and renowned names also that are worth mentioning like Plato, Ren Descartes, Aristotle etc. (Hunt, 2004). There have been many different philosophical ideas including rationalism, empiricism, the Encyclopedists, the analytic and synthetic, logic and also determinism. Philosophy is dependent on all of these. Other ideas that floated through this century are science, religion, morality, truth, reason, faith, belief, class, power, rationality etc. And all philosophers have written or shown their works through the expression of one of these or the other. The major philosophers of this age were Kant and Voltaire. Victor Hugo Voltaire is a huge name in the world of philosophy when we talk about the eighteenth century. Apart from Voltaire, Kant and John Locke have been great thinkers too. Locke defined empiricism and his works greatly relate to this field of philosophy. (Hunt, 2004). John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are some other names in the Enlightenment Era who have been said to create great works as thinkers in this period. The most famous of these works being "noble savage" and endorsement of the idea of free trade principle. The patron of these works was Rousseau. Because of this afore-mentioned work, relations pertaining to political and economic criteria were greatly affected. Many views changed and the association promoted this free trade concept. However, Roman Catholic views and theories were then

Understanding economic globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Understanding economic globalization - Essay Example Economic journals define globalization as a process by which national economies and cultures are integrated into an international economy so as to enhance international trade, direct foreign investment, migration, and technology sharing. It is generally argued that the concept of globalization greatly contributes to effective and rapid circulation of ideas, languages, and cultural ideologies since nations have liberalized cross-border trade regulations with intent to enhance foreign investment and cross-border trade for international business expansion.On the contrary, Deepak Nayyar strongly claims that globalisation has not led to a rapid growth and economic convergence in the world. He adds that this process greatly slowed down economic growth, caused the divergence of income levels, and widened the gap between industrialised nations and developing countries. Nayyar’s framework mainly compares the globalisation process of late nineteenth century with that of the twentieth ce ntury. Nayyar’s framework Nayyar tells that the term globalisation is used both in a positive and a normative sense, and hence it is a cause for confusion. According to Nayyar (2006), the word globalisation is used in a positive sense to express a process of integration into the global economy whereas it is used in a normative sense to describe a developmental strategy in the context of a rapid integration with the world economy. In the opinion of Nayyar, globalisation can be simply referred to a spread of economic activities across national boundaries. He clearly explains that the phenomenon of globalisation has three economic manifestations including â€Å"international trade, international investment, and international finance† (Nayyar, 2006). More precisely, this process increases economic openness, promotes economic interdependence, and strengthens economic integration in the world; and in order to get more clear ideas about the globalisation process, Nayyar descr ibes the terms economic openness, economic interdependence, and economic integration. Although globalisation and resulted economic openness facilitates flows of investment, services, technology, information, and ideas beyond national boundaries; this process cannot liberalise cross-border movement of people (ibid). In addition, Nayyar strongly argues that economic interdependence as a result of globalisation is asymmetrical. He opines that countries in the industrialised world are more interdependent while developing countries are highly dependent on industrialised countries. It also seems that countries in the developing world are less interdependent. A situation of interdependence emerges when the benefits involved in linking and costs involved in delinking are almost same for both partners. In contrast, when the derived benefits and incurred costs are notably different for both partners, it contributes to a situation of interdependence (ibid). By referring to these ideas, he stat es that globalisation has not much contributed to the economic prosperity of developing and underdeveloped countries. In the view of Nayyar, economic integration straddles national boundaries because importance of borders in economic transactions has been decreased as a result of globalisation related cross border liberalisation. To justify the argument that the globalisation has reduced the pace of economic growth and also caused some adverse effects on the economies, Nayyar points out a sequence of evidences. In order to strengthen his arguments, Nayyar refers to the point that global economy in the late 20th century and early 21st century (globalisation era) was very much similar to that in the late 19th (pre-globalisation era) century in many ways. He asserts that there were no restrictions on the movement of goods, capital, and labour across national boundaries during the early 20th century and hence governmental interventions seldom constrained economic activities. He tells th at the popularisation of steamship, the railway, and the

Should you hire an experienced hacker to protect your IT systems Essay Example for Free

Should you hire an experienced hacker to protect your IT systems Essay Securing IT systems from potential threats and thefts is a daunting task faced by organizations. Sensitive information in wrong hands could be harmful and can cause lot of damage. Hackers not only gain access to information but also indulge in various forms of cyber terrorism such as extortion. Hackers, discover the vulnerabilities of an IT system and exploit it. They understand the nuances of the system so well that exploiting it for their advantage becomes easy. The question one needs to think about is if hackers are so talented enough to break into security system, why shouldn’t their services be sought to protect the system. A hacker depending on his intentions could be a white hacker/white hat, black hacker/black hat or grey hacker/grey hat. A hacker who indulges in hacking with a non-malicious intention to expose the vulnerabilities of the system is known as white hat. These hackers employ the techniques used by malicious hackers to test the security of an IT system and detect any errors. Hackers who intrude IT systems with motives such as theft of data or cyber terrorism are commonly known as black hat. They find the mistakes in the computer systems and use it to their advantage. A grey hat would be someone whose intention is at the borderline. Grey hat hackers are those who perceive breaking into a security system , a challenge for their skills. They may not cause any harm but nevertheless they intrude a system. White hat are also known ethical hacker assess the possible threats to a IT system. It is necessary for these ethical hackers to gain an insight into the mind and techniques of malicious hackers. An example of an ethical hacker is Mark Seiden who works as an independent security consultant. It is his job to find the weak links in a security system and provide solutions for those loopholes. He has helped various organizations in tracking the vulnerabilities of their security system. According to him, the creation of a security system is an effort required by two people. One who is responsible for creation of the security system and the second who would test the system for its faults. These days there are various institutes which offer training in hacking for the detecting loopholes in a security system. Anyone with knowledge of computer programming or network administration is eligible for this course. These modules which aim at producing a â€Å"certified hacker† , train people interested in hacking by providing them in-depth knowledge about security systems and how to detect loopholes within them. The sole aim of this training is to enable the white guys use skills such as penetration testing, internal/external network hacking, war dialing etc. to test the vulnerability of their networks and IT systems. Thus armed with knowledge about the workings of the bad guys, they are sought by organizations to help them avert intrusion. However, one needs to address the issue whether the ethical hackers work under a code on ethics that will prevent them from using this knowledge for a wrong cause. When students enroll for courses in learning regarding hacking systems, there is no way to detect whether he is going to use it for a malicious purpose or not. There are various risks associated with training people with skills to detect vulnerabilities. Some of the courses are taught online. It is possible for malicious hackers to gain access to this to further enhance their knowledge. There are certain disadvantages in hiring or training ethical hackers. There is no assurance that the hacker will comply to the code of ethics. Since they have the knowledge of breaking into systems and gaining access to valuable data, their intentions might vary and they may get lured into unethical activity. Therefore, while offering training on these hacking courses one needs to ensure awareness regarding misuse and unauthorized access. Information regarding the legal implication in unethical usage should be available to students availing such courses. Exposure to laws and punishments regarding malicious hacking should be provided. This can act as a deterrent to behave in an unethical manner. Organizations should exercise great caution while hiring hackers. They should have legal contracts which explicitly state the terms and conditions under which hacking is carried out. Ethical hackers should develop a code of ethics under which they operate. They should ensure that these hackers are working under strict policies and supervision of the organizations. Good security policies are another way to dissuade unethical hacking. Employees with a proven track record can be trusted with responsibilities of ethical hacking. One should be cautious while employing a criminal hacker to detect system weakness. Conclusion The advantages associated with ethical hacking outweigh the risks. Under supervisions and security policies organizations can engage experienced hackers to test their system for weal areas. Information in wrong hands could be dangerous and harm the credibility of organizations. An experienced hacker thus identifies the error in the software of security system and provides patches to secure it further. It is true, to overpower one’s enemy, you need to think like the enemy.

Female Mosquito Digestive Enzymes Essay -- Biology Aedes Aegypti

Introduction Mosquitoes are remembered by most as being the bane of the outdoor barbecue; the reason that bug zappers were invented. However, mosquitoes are not really as bad as some people think. To begin with, mosquitoes are equal opportunity pests. They will go after anything with blood, not just human flesh. In fact, it is only the female mosquito who bites; the male mosquitoes don't drink blood and are relatively innocent. Finally, mosquitoes are extremely well adapted to what they do. When a female mosquito bites an animal, certain chemicals in the animal's blood tell her when she has hit a blood vessel. Then, the mosquito's specialized saliva kicks in to keep the wound from clotting. In this manner, a typical 2 mg. mosquito can take in two to three times its own weight in blood. Experiment One When a mosquito takes in blood, it needs to be able to break the proteins in that blood down into their component amino acids in order to get any nutrition from the meal. The gut of the mosquito employs a class of enzymes called proteolytic enzymes to accomplish this. Trypsin, the enzyme being studied in this project, is one such enzyme. It is separated into two categories: early trypsin, which appears shortly after a blood-meal, and late trypsin, which appears later in digestion, and which does most of the work of digestion. The project found evidence that early trypsin activity (that is, the presence of early trypsin in the gut following a meal) was essential to the production of late trypsin later in the experiment. The early trypsin is present in small amounts about two hours after a meal, and the amounts fade out after about eight hours. At about twelve hours after the meal, the late trypsin begins to form. The early try... ...vel of late trypsin translated in relation to the amount of protein in the meal. Regulation at both the transcriptional and translational levels allows the mosquito to adjust the levels of late trypsin with remarkable flexibility in response to a particular meal. In other words, the mosquito has the ability to assess the quality of its meals and then appropriately synthesize the late trypsin gene. This tight regulation might be important in reserving the synthesis of late trypsin when it isn't needed. By studying trypsin (early and late) activity in the midgut of the mosquito it is possible that a "mosquito contraceptive" might be developed. A block of trypsin equates to no eggs and no offspring. Therefore, if we find a way to block trypsin production we can stop mosquitoes from reproducing; greatly decreasing or even diminishing these disease carrying insects.

Normative ethics Essay

Metaethics talks about the nature of ethics and moral reasoning. Discussions about whether ethics is relative and whether we always act from self-interest are examples of meta-ethical discussions. In fact, drawing the conceptual distinction between Metaethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics is itself a â€Å"metaethical analysis. † Normative ethics is interested in determining the content of our moral behavior. Normative ethical theories seek to provide action-guides; procedures for answering the Practical Question (â€Å"What ought I to do? â€Å"). The moral theories of Kant and Bentham are examples of normative theories that seek to provide guidelines for determining a specific course of moral action. Think of the Categorical Imperative in the case of the former and the Principle of Utility in the case of the latter. Applied Ethics attempts to deal with specific realms of human action and to craft criteria for discussing issues that might arise within those realms. The contemporary field of Applied Ethics arouse in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Today, it is a thriving part of the field of ethics. Numerous books and web-sites are devoted to topics such as Business Ethics, Computer Ethics, and Engineering Ethics. Ethical Relativism Distinctions within Relativism There is a distinction between â€Å"morals† and â€Å"mores†. The latter can be defined as â€Å"harmless customs† (e. g. , â€Å"tea at 4†); the former as â€Å"treatment of others† (e. g. , â€Å"the practice of Apartheid†). In discussing Relativism, we are concerned only with â€Å"moral practices. † The Problem of Relativism: What one society considers Right, another Society considers Wrong. Therefore, RIGHT AND WRONG are RELATIVE to a PARTICULAR SOCIETY. Here we need to be aware of two things: (1) Confusing â€Å"harmless conventions† (The British drive on the left side of the road) with â€Å"harmful practices† (Clitorectomy is customary among the Somali). (2) Even if â€Å"moralities† may differ from society to society, it need not follow that Morality Itself is relative — for there is a further distinction between CULTURAL (â€Å"descriptive†) RELATIVISM and NORMATIVE (â€Å"Ethical†) RELATIVISM. Cultural (â€Å"descriptive†) Relativism: The descriptive relativist simply notes certain sociological FACTS: (a) Factual Claims: â€Å"x is considered right in Society y at time t† and â€Å"x is considered wrong in Society z at time t. † (b) Empirical Conclusion: Moralities are relative [Note that the claims of Cultural Relativism are either true or false. ] Normative (ethical) Relativism The normative relativist goes BEYOND any sociological facts. (a) Normative Claim: â€Å"What is considered right in Society x at time t IS right for that Society. † (b) Theoretical (metaethical) Claim: Morality Itself is Relative. Note that ethical relativism does not logically follow from any truths uncovered by descriptive relativism. Note also that the ethical relativist has a hard time explaining how radical moral change can occur within a certain society (as with slavery or women’s suffrage in the United States). Ethical Egoism Psychological and Ethical Egoism. As a metaethical theory of motivation, psychological egoism asserts the descriptive claim that all of our actions can be reduced to self-interest: â€Å"Whenever people do something, it is only because they think something desirable for themselves will result from it. † The claim is descriptive and thus open to counterexamples, and it is broad, stating a reductionistic thesis regarding all of our actions. (Contrast psychological egoism with the psychological state of sympathy, where ‘the weal and woe of the other becomes the motive for our action’.) Ethical egoism is a normative theory that states that our actions ought to be done from the perspective of self-interest. One of the problems with this position is that it might not be in one’s self-interest to have eveyone act from the perspective of self-interest. This ‘state of nature’ would not be desirable (in Hobbes’ terms, life would be â€Å"beastly, brutal, and short†) and so it might ultimately be in one’s self-interest to enter into a contract with others that would place restraints upon self-interested actions. Utilitarian Theories Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies. As such, it moves beyond the scope of one’s own interests and takes into account the interests of others. Bentham’s Utility Principle: (1) Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life, (2) approves or disapproves of an action on the basis of the amount of pain or pleasure brought about i.e, consequences, (3) equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, and (4) asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of quantification (and hence ‘measure’). In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham introduces the following criteria: INTENSITY, DURATION, CERTAINTY (or UNCERTAINTY), and its NEARNESS (or FARNESS). He also includes its â€Å"fecundity† (will more of the same follow? ) and its â€Å"purity† (its pleasure won’t be followed by pain & vice versa). In considering actions that affect numbers of people, we must also account for its EXTENT. John Stuart Mill adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in Bentham’s philosophy by emphasizing (1) It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to utilitarianism, (2) the calculus is unreasonable — qualities cannot be quantified (there is a distinction between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures), and (3) utilitarianism refers to â€Å"the Greatest Happiness Principle† — it seeks to promote the capability of achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most amount of people (this is its â€Å"extent†). Act and Rule Utilitarianism. We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL RULES. The former is called â€Å"act-utilitarianism† and the latter is called â€Å"rule-utilitarianism. † Act-utilitarianism — The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results (or the least amount of bad results). * Criticisms of this view point to the difficulty of attaining a full knowledge and certainly of the consequences of our actions. * It is possible to justify immoral acts using AU: Suppose you could end a regional war by torturing children whose fathers are enemy soliders, thus revealing the hide outs of the fathers. Rule-utilitarianism — The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were binding. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules. * Some criticisms of this position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, RU collapses into AU. * More genearl criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate â€Å"unjust rules† according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals. Deontological Theories Acting from Duty Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties. Monistic deontology — Kant’s Categorical Imperative (â€Å"Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law†) provides the source of right action. Its first formulation states â€Å"Act as if the maxim of your action were to secure through your will a universal law of nature;† its second formulation states â€Å"Always act so as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, as an end in itself, never as a means only. â€Å" Actions that conform to these imperatives (i. e., right actions) and are, furthermore, done from a sense of duty, are the epitome of morally praiseworthy actions. Critics of Kant’s approach claim that his Categorical Imperative does not contain within it a way to resolve conflicts of duties. â€Å"Lying is wrong† can be interpreted as â€Å"Never lie† and thus Universal Principles can ‘harden’ into Absolute Principles. Pluralistic deontology — For the 20th Century philosopher W. D. Ross, there are a number of duties that reflection reveals — and these form a group of prima facie obligations. The phrase â€Å"prima facie† (‘all things being equal’) refers to the fact that these duties do not bind us absolutely, but rather that they generally hold — absent any further considerations. Two key duties are nonmaleficence (don’t harm others) and beneficence (help others). Other prima facie duties include ‘don’t lie,’ ‘don’t kill,’ keep promises,’ etc. When conflicts occur between duties, our actual duty becomes that which â€Å"intuitive judgment† discerns as the right thing to do (e. g. , lying to save the life of an innocent person). Critics are cautious about referring to ‘intuition’ as the criterion for determining our actual course of action. Stephen Toulmin suggested that we â€Å"weigh up, as well as we can, the risks involved in ignoring either, and choose ‘the lesser of two evils’. † Thus, while the principles may be deontic in nature, a resolution of conflicts of principles could appeal to probable consequences. Virtue Ethics Historical Perspective There is a long tradition in ethics that places great importance on the â€Å"kind of person one is. † We not only want those around us to â€Å"tell the truth† (for example, according to the Categorical Imperative), but also to be honest. Both Aristotle (arete) and Aquinas (virtu) emphasized this aspect of ethics by highlighting the role of what we would today call character in their discussions of ethics (and the classic virtues of courage, justice, and moderation). David Hume also gave virtue and personal merit a key role in his ethical theory. The recent revival of interest in virtue ethics can be traced back to Philippa Foot. She writes that a person’s â€Å"virtue may be judged by his innermost desires as well as by his intentions; and this fits with our idea that a virtue such as generosity lies as much in someone’s attitudes as in his actions† . The Moral Concept of Virtue We should distinguish the virtues found in a particular society or culture (e. g. , chastity) from those virtues that can be supported by moral reasoning (e. g. , honesty). â€Å"A virtue is a trait of character that is socially valued, and a moral virtue is a trait that is morally valued†¦Moral reasons must support a claim†¦of moral virtue† . By emphasizing the priority of character in discussions of ethics, virtue theorists can say: â€Å"†¦rather than using rules and government regulations to protect subjects in research, some claim that the most reliable protection is the presence of an ‘informed, conscientious, compassionate, responsible researcher’†. The underlying view here is that â€Å"character is more important than conformity to rules and that virtues should be inculcated and cultivated over time through educational interactions, role models,† etc. A practical consequence of this view is that the education of, for example medical doctors, should include the cultivation of virtues such as compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, conscientiousness as well as benevolence (desire to help) and nonmalevolence (desire to avoid harm). Critical Evaluation of â€Å"Virtue Ethics† Often times we encounter â€Å"morality between strangers† (as when one enters an Emergency Room after a car accident). At these times, it’s not the person’s character, but his/her need to follow rules and procedures that seem to come to the forefront (â€Å"Virtue is not enough†). Furthermore, persons of ‘good character’ can certainly formulate ‘bad policy’ or make a ‘poor choice’ — and we need to evaluate those policies and choices according to moral principles. Constructive Evaluation of â€Å"Virtue Ethics† Yet â€Å"†¦ethical theory is more complete if the virtues are included†¦motives deserve to be at center stage in a way that some leading traditional theories have inadequately appreciated† †¦ â€Å"To look at acts without also looking at the moral appropriateness and desirability of feelings, attitudes, forms of sympathy, and the like is to miss a large area of the moral picture† (B&C, 4th Ed., 69) Liberal Rights and Communitarian Theories Today we often find moral problems framed by perspectives derived from political philosophy. Issues like euthanasia, stem cell research and abortion as well as distributive justice concerns such as social security and medicare, are likely to be seen along the liberal/conservative divide. Traditional moral theories need to take these frameworks into consideration. Will Kymlicka’s Introduction to Political Philosophy provides analyses of the philosophical ideas behind the â€Å"ideological debates† that now envelop many topics in moral philosophy. Of particular value is his discussion of liberal equality, libertarianism, and communitarianism. Liberal equality is often associated with the work on John Rawls in his Theory of Justice. It argues that we should rationally affirm two fundamental principles of justice designed to protect our political liberties and social opportunities. It can be directly contrasted with the libertarian ideas found in Robert Nozick’s Anarchy, State, and Utopia. Nozick challenges Rawls’s approach to social inequalities and argues for a minimalist state. But both authors (and their followers) conceive of individuals as ‘Socratic’ in nature, capable of reasoning about their life plan and questioning, in principle, the world around them. In this sense, they are both ‘liberals’ in the tradition of John Stuart Mill’s essay, â€Å"On Liberty. † â€Å"For liberals, the question about the good life requires us to make a judgment about what sort of a person we wish to be†. Thus liberals will emphasize the role of choice and freedom from government interference in private matters. For communitarians, on the other hand, individuals are not atomistic, ‘unencumbered selves’ — individuals are situated within a community, embedded in the received wisdom of our human culture. Communal values are ‘authoritative horizons’ wherein we take our orientation toward life . The â€Å"self is not prior to, but rather constituted by, its ends — we cannot distinguish ‘me’ from ‘my ends’ [and] our selves are at least partly constituted by ends that we do not choose, but rather discover by virtue of our being embedded in some shared social context† . Since self-determination does not occur in a vacuum, the government needs to support a social environment that is conducive to the development of what is best in all of us. For those communitarians who are ‘social conservatives,’ this will often take the form of a promotion ‘family values’ that can, for example, discourage changes in the institution of marriage. Broadly speaking, these two positions account for the divide between ‘liberals’ and ‘social conservatives’ in dealing with matters such as abortion and euthanasia. In these situations, liberals tend to become ‘pro-choice’ and social conservatives tend to become ‘pro-life. ‘ ***** As is to be expected in a modern, pluralistic democracy, many of these issues are addressed in the political realm and through the political process (including the courts). But the kinds of ‘cases’ that arise within these areas should also be addressed within the framework of applied ethics as a way to get clearer about the nature of the problem and its potential for resolution. Indeed, we often see analyses found in applied ethics, such as the concept of a ‘person in the morally significant sense’ or the distinction between ‘killing’ and ‘allowing to die,’ embedded in the political debate itself. Ethics of Care In the 1970s and 80s feminist writers began to question the assumptions behind many of the traditional ethical theories. Carol Gilligan’s work in moral psychology challenged â€Å"justice-based† approaches to moral discussion: â€Å"†¦ men tend to embrace an ethic of rights using quasi-legal terminology and impartial principles †¦ women tend to affirm an ethic of care that centers on responsiveness in an interconnected network of needs, care, and prevention of harm. Taking care of others is the core notion. † Annette Baier’s philosophical account of an ethics of care â€Å"does not recommend that we discard categories of obligation, but that we make room for an ethic of love and trust, including an account of human bonding and friendship. † In both of these accounts, there is a specific criticism of â€Å"Traditional Liberal Theory† and its emphasis on impartiality and universality: The impartiality and the ‘standpoint of detached fairness’ advocated by liberal theories of justice, overlook, for example, the moral role of attachment to those close to us. Speaking from the perspective of medical ethics, â€Å"The care perspective is especially meaningful for roles such as parent, friend, physician, and nurse, in which contextual response, attentiveness to subtle clues, and the deepening of special relationships are likely to be more momentous morally than impartial treatment† In articulating the challenge to â€Å"universal principles,† Beauchamp and Childress write: â€Å"We can produce rough generalizations about how caring physicians and nurses respond to patients, for example, but these generalizations will not be subtle enough to give helpful guidance for the next patient. Each situation calls for a set of responses outside any generalization†¦. † Proponents of an Ethics of Care emphasize the roles of Mutual Interdependence and Emotional Response that play an important part in our moral lives: â€Å"†¦many human relationships involve persons who are vulnerable, dependent, ill, and frail †¦ [and] the desirable moral response is attached attentiveness to needs, not detached respect for rights† (B&C, 373) and â€Å"The person who acts from rule-governed obligations without appropriately aligned feelings such as worry when a friend suffers seems to have a moral deficiency. In addition†¦insight into the needs of others and considerate alertness to their circumstances often come from the emotions more than reason. † Thus the emotions seem to have a ‘cognitive role,’ allowing us to grasp a situation that may not be immediately available to one arguing solely from a ‘justice perspective. ’ Critical Evaluation of the Care Ethic The example of a nurse who personally wants to help a patient die, but who will not do so as it violates professional duty, shows that â€Å"†¦the ethics of care must confront situations in which bona fide requirements of impartiality conflict with acting partially from care. † Some feminists actually interpret the ‘care ethic’ as culturally determined by the male hierarchy. For example, a terminally ill grand mother may request to be allowed to die because she doesn’t want to be ‘a bother’ to her family. Here someone like Susan Sherwin â€Å"sees a need to examine the social context of care as well as to establish limits to the ethics of care. Both enterprises would involve appeals to justice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Constructive Evaluation of the Care Ethic Sensitivity and emotional response to particular situations (like family discussions with physicians) provide important guides to morally acceptable actions. A care ethic also seems to favor adopting procedures from Conflict Resolution and Dispute Mediation as alternative ways to approach an apparent ethical conflict. Hedonism The term â€Å"hedonism,† from the Greek word (hedone) for pleasure, refers to several related theories about what is good for us, how we should behave, and what motivates us to behave in the way that we do. All hedonistic theories identify pleasure and pain as the only important elements of whatever phenomena they are designed to describe. If hedonistic theories identified pleasure and pain as merely two important elements, instead of the only important elements of what they are describing, then they would call it Hedonism uld not be nearly as unpopular as they all are. However, the claim that pleasure and pain are the only things of ultimate importance is what makes hedonism distinctive and philosophically interesting. Philosophical hedonists tend to focus on hedonistic theories of value, and especially of well-being (the good life for the one living it). As a theory of value, hedonism states that all and only pleasure is intrinsically valuable and all and only pain is intrinsically not valuable. Hedonists usually define pleasure and pain broadly, such that both physical and mental phenomena are included. Thus, a gentle massage and recalling a fond memory are both considered to cause pleasure and stubbing a toe and hearing about the death of a loved one are both considered to cause pain. With pleasure and pain so defined, hedonism as a theory about what is valuable for us is intuitively appealing. Indeed, its appeal is evidenced by the fact that nearly all historical and contemporary treatments of well-being allocate at least some space for discussion of hedonism. Unfortunately for hedonism, the discussions rarely endorse it and some even deplore its focus on pleasure. This article begins by clarifying the different types of hedonistic theories and the labels they are often given. Then, hedonism’s ancient origins and its subsequent development are reviewed. The majority of this article is concerned with describing the important theoretical divisions within Prudential Hedonism and discussing the major criticisms of these approaches. The Origins of Hedonism . a. Aristippus and the Cyrenaics The Cyrenaics, founded by Artistippus were also sceptics and Hedonistic Egoists. Although the paucity of original texts makes it difficult to confidently state all of the justifications for the Cyrenaics’ positions, their overall stance is clear enough. The Cyrenaics believed pleasure was the ultimate good and everyone should pursue all immediate pleasures for themselves. They considered bodily pleasures better than mental pleasures, presumably because they were more vivid or trustworthy. The Cyrenaics also recommended pursuing immediate pleasures and avoiding immediate pains with scant or no regard for future consequences. Their reasoning for this is even less clear, but is most plausibly linked to their sceptical views – perhaps that what we can be most sure of in this uncertain existence is our current bodily pleasures. b. Epicurus Epicurus founder of Epicureanism, developed a Normative Hedonism in stark contrast to that of Aristippus. The Epicureanism of Epicurus is also quite the opposite to the common usage of Epicureanism; while we might like to go on a luxurious â€Å"Epicurean† holiday packed with fine dining and moderately excessive wining, Epicurus would warn us that we are only setting ourselves up for future pain. For Epicurus, happiness was the complete absence of bodily and especially mental pains, including fear of the Gods and desires for anything other than the bare necessities of life. Even with only the limited excesses of ancient Greece on offer, Epicurus advised his followers to avoid towns, and especially marketplaces, in order to limit the resulting desires for unnecessary things. Once we experience unnecessary pleasures, such as those from sex and rich food, we will then suffer from painful and hard to satisfy desires for more and better of the same. No matter how wealthy we might be, Epicurus would argue, our desires will eventually outstrip our means and interfere with our ability to live tranquil, happy lives. Epicureanism is generally egoistic, in that it encourages everyone to pursue happiness for themselves. However, Epicureans would be unlikely to commit any of the selfish acts we might expect from other egoists because Epicureans train themselves to desire only the very basics, which gives them very little reason to do anything to interfere with the affairs of others. c. The Oyster Example With the exception of a brief period discussed below, Hedonism has been generally unpopular ever since its ancient beginnings. Although criticisms of the ancient forms of hedonism were many and varied, one in particular was heavily cited. In Philebus, Plato’s Socrates and one of his many foils, Protarchus in this instance, are discussing the role of pleasure in the good life. Socrates asks Protarchus to imagine a life without much pleasure but full of the higher cognitive processes, such as knowledge, forethought and consciousness and to compare it with a life that is the opposite. Socrates describes this opposite life as having perfect pleasure but the mental life of an oyster, pointing out that the subject of such a life would not be able to appreciate any of the pleasure within it. The harrowing thought of living the pleasurable but unthinking life of an oyster causes Protarchus to abandon his hedonistic argument. The oyster example is now easily avoided by clarifying that pleasure is best understood as being a conscious experience, so any sensation that we are not consciously aware of cannot be pleasure.

Cow

Cattle (colloquially cows) are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius. Cattle are raised as livestock for meat (beef and veal), as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals (oxen or bullocks) (pulling carts, plows and the like). Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel. In some countries, such as India, cattle are sacred.From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago,[2] an estimated 1. 3 billion cattle are in the world today. [3] In 2009, cattle became the first livestock animal to have a fully mapped genome. [4] SpeciesMain article: Bovini Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or â€Å"taurine† cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indi cus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle.Recently, these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, with Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus and Bos primigenius primigenius as the subspecies. [5] Zubron, a cross between wisent and cattleComplicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle, Bos taurus africanus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the dzo or yattle[6]), banteng, and gaur.Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well. [7] The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the on ly taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. [8] However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo.The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Masovia, Poland, in about 1627. [9] Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Word origin†Cattle† did not originate as the term for bovine animals.It was borrowed from Old French catel, itself from Latin caput, head, and originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens — they were sold as part of the land). [10] The word is closely related to â€Å"chattel† (a unit of personal property) and â€Å"capital† in the economic sense. [11][12] The term replaced earlier Old English feoh â€Å"cattle, property† (cf. German: Vieh, Gothic: faihu). The word â€Å"cow† came via Anglo-Saxon cu (plural c? ), from Common Indo-European g? ous (genitive g? wes) = â€Å"a bovine animal†, compare Persian gav, Sanskrit go, Welsh buwch. [citation needed] The genitive plural of cu is c? na, which gave the now archaic English plural of â€Å"kine†. The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is â€Å"kye†. In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, â€Å"cattle† refers to livestock, as opposed to â€Å"deer† which refers to wildlife. â€Å"Wild cattle† may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of â€Å"cattle† is usually restricted to domesticated bovines. citation needed] Terminology Look up cattle or cow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. A Hereford bullIn general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and the United States. [13] An â€Å"intact† (i. e. , not castrated) adult male is called a bull. A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as a â€Å"micky† in Australia. 14] An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a â€Å"maverick† in the USA and Canada. An adult female that has had a calf (or two, depending on regional usage) is a cow. A young female before she has had a calf of her own[15] and is under three years of age is called a heifer ( /? h? f? r/ HEF-? r). [16] A young female that has had only one cal f is occasionally called a first-calf heifer. Young cattle of both sexes are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas; in other areas, particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder calves or simply feeders.After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks[17] if between one and two years of age. [18] A castrated male is called a steer in the United States; older steers are often called bullocks in other parts of the world,[19] but in North America this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky bulls that were caught, castrated and then later lost. [14] In Australia, the term â€Å"Japanese ox† is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade. [20] In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working steers.Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in Australia, Ca nada and New Zealand. [21] In some countries, an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig. A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft purposes is called an ox (plural oxen); â€Å"ox† may also be used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle, such as ox-hide, ox-blood, oxtail, or ox-liver. [16] A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving. [22] In all cattle species, a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is a freemartin.Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although poll, pollard or polled cattle are still terms in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas also for those that have been disbudded. Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still use d to refer to an animal of either sex. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British people use the term beast, especially for single animals when the sex is unknown. 23] Cattle of certain breeds bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle;[13] a cow kept to provide milk for one family may be called a house cow or milker. The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms â€Å"bull†, â€Å"cow† and â€Å"calf† are also used by extension to denote the sex or age of other large animals, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk and elephants See also: List of animal names Singular terminology issue A herd of CattleCattle can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum. 24] Thus one may refer to â€Å"three cattle† or â€Å"some cattle†, but not â€Å"one cattle†. No universally used singular form in modern English of â€Å"cattle† exists, other t han the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Historically, â€Å"ox† was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for draft cattle, especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as the musk ox and â€Å"grunting ox† (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox-hide and oxtail. 25] A Brahman calf†Cow† is in general use as a singular for the collective â€Å"cattle†, despite the objections by those who insist it to be a female-specific term. Although the phrase â€Å"that cow is a bull† is absurd from a lexicographic standpoint, the word â€Å"cow† is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant – when â€Å"there is a cow in the road†, for example. Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consi st mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense.Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. Merriam-Webster, a US dictionary, recognizes the sex-nonspecific use of â€Å"cow† as an alternate definition,[26] whereas Collins, a UK dictionary, does not. [27]Colloquially, more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term â€Å"beast† or â€Å"cattle beast†. â€Å"Bovine† is also used in Britain. The term â€Å"critter† is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. [28] In some areas of the American Sou th (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a â€Å"beef critter†, though that term is becoming archaic.

Computer Security

Computer Security As defined in Computer Security Basics by O'Reilly Associates, Inc. Biometrics is the use of a persons unique physiological, behavioral, and morphological characteristics to provide positive personal identification.Biometric systems that are currently avaiable today examine fingerprints, handprints, and retina patterns. Systems that are close to biometrics but are not classified as such are behavioral systems such as voice, signature and keystroke systems. They test patterns of behavior not parts of the body.It seems that in the world of biometrics that the more effective the device, the less willing people will be to accept it. Retina pattern devices are the most reliable but most people hate the idea of a laser shooting into their eye. Yet something such as monitoring keystroke patters people don't mind, but it's not nearly as effective.Biometric verification is forecast to be a multibillion dollar market in this decade. There is no doubt that financial credit and debit cards are going to be the biggest part of the biometric market.At Walt Disney World, biometric measurements are t...There are also many significant niche markets which are growing rapidly.For example, biometric identification cards are being used at a university in Georgia to allow students to get their meals, and in a Maryland day care center to ensure that the right person picks up the right child. In Los Angeles, they are using fingerprints to stop welfare fraud. And they're also being used by frequent business travellers for rapid transit through immigration and customs in Holland, and now at JFK and Newark airports in the United States. It could also be used to simply prevent one employee from 'punching in' for some one else, or to prevent someone from opening up an account at a bank using a false name. Then there is also the security access market, access to computer...

Applying theory of career construction to case study

Applying theory of career construction to case study The purpose of this case study is to apply Savickas’ Theory of Career Construction to a volunteer client Karen. Complete a narrative interview using the structured interview questions in the Career Style Interview, and employing the six steps. Discuss interpretations, observations and obtain her feedback. Theoretical foundation of Career Construction Theory The theoretical foundation of Career Construction theory (CCT) has its beginnings from Constructivism, and according to Sharf (2009) Constructivism is a psychological approach that has developed out of a postmodern philosophical position. It has been stated the Postmodernism period was a â€Å"reaction to modernism†, in that it highlighted the differences in individual views rather than a one-sided, rational scientific view of modernism. (Sharf 2009) Constructivist saw individuals as creators of their own destiny, and constructivist counselors sought to help clients discover that meaning and resolve any discrepancy. (Sharf 2009) According to (Sharf 2009, p316) the constructivism approach was greatly affected by the changing of the work environments in the 1970’s. Employees were no longer staying with one position for their whole work life, as companies were becoming â€Å"less loyal† to employees and watching out for own bottom-line by â€Å"downsizing† their workforce to â€Å"part-time†. Employees soon discovered they needed to take charge of their future and looked to career counselors for help. According to (Busacca, 2007) constructivist career counseling attempts to answer one question â€Å"how can an individual negotiate a lifetime job changes and not lose a sense of self?† Career construction theory (CCT) came about to help individuals develop meaning out of their career choices and actions. CCT addresses how an individual’s â€Å"career†, is made from its personal and social constructs or interactions. These constructs are not actual re al reality, but an individual’s representation of that reality. CCT defines career as an objective and subjective construct. Objectively speaking, career is a listing of positions from the past to present. Subjectively, career is the personal meaning or a pattern of experiences from past, present and future. (Savickas, 2005, p43) CCT is made of three distinct perspectives and each seeks to determine how the individual views their life and career, and how they work together. (Busacca, 2007) These perspectives are life theme, career adaptability, and vocational personality. The Purpose and the Suppositions The purpose of CCT is to help the individual discover the subjective meaning in their work. In helping the individual discover this type of meaning, CCT stress the importance of the relationship between the individual and the counselor. Life themes In Holland’s career development theory, his inventories were used to obtain critical information about the individual, and make predictions about a career path, and also the likely hood of success along this path. Career construction theory takes advantage of the individual’s narrated work stories to discover any meanings or patterns. (Busacca, 2007) It has been stated that â€Å"pattern is the primary unit of meaning†. â€Å"By consciously organizing and binding together these discrete experiences, a unifying life theme patterns† (Savickas 2005, p 58) â€Å"patterns becomes a fundamental and essential way of being because it provides a way for individuals to see themselves and see what is important in the world.† (Savickas, 2005 p58)

Finance For Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Finance For Managers - Essay Example Top managers use budgets for the company as a whole while middle managers traditionally focus on the budget performance of their department or division. Normally the types of budgets used in different units pertain to expense budget, revenue budget, cash budget and capital budget. And expense budget focuses on anticipated and actual expense for each department. When actual expenses exceed budgeted amounts, the difference signals the need to managers to identify whether a problem exists. It could highlight inefficiencies or leakages or in retrospect if expenses are below budget, it could signal exceptional efficiency or failure to meet some other target, e.g. sales. Revenue budget lists forecasted and actual revenues of the division and / or the organization. Cash budget estimates receipts and expenditures of money of a daily or weekly basis – it shows the level of funds flowing through the organization and their nature. Cash budget is very important for liquidity management of the company for daily business activities. Capital budget is for planned investments in major assets. It not only have large impact on future expense, it is for investments designed to enhance profits of the organization. Capital budgets needs to be monitored in order to evaluate whether the assumptions made about return on such investments are holding true. Many traditional companies use top down budgeting which means that the budgeted amounts for the coming year are literally imposed on middle and lower level managers. The managers set departmental budget targets in accordance with over all company revenues and expenditures specified by top executives. Although there are some advantages to the top down process, the movement toward employee empowerment, participation and learning encourages the adoption of bottom up budgeting – a process in which lower level managers anticipate their departments’